How China s Isolation Affected Itself - 2161 Words

Questions/Main ideas/topics NOTES: How has China’s isolation affected itself? What traditions did the Chinese develop? Patterns in Classical China What dynasties were widely known in China? What has the Zhou dynasty accomplished? What were the alliances like? What became of the Yangtze River Valley? What did the Zhou dynasty work to do? Qin Dynasty Who took over after the fall of the Zhou dynasty? What accomplishments were made during the Qin dynasty? Han Dynasty What was accomplished in the Han dynasty? Political Institutions What was done with political institutions during all three dynasties? What did the government create or produce during this period? Religion and Culture What did Confucius believe? What is Confucianism and what did Confucius set out to do? What is Daoism? What did Lao-zi do for the religion Daoism? What did Daoism do? What did the Five classics do? What advancements has China made in the area of science? Economy and Society What technological advancements did China have? Why was family important? †¢ Isolated o Limited in knowledge of other cultures o Spared it from invasions and developed an intense and instinctive Chinese identity †¢ Huang He thinkers developed a vague world view that was accepted as a standard approach in later Chinese thinking o harmony of nature oShow MoreRelatedAmerican Isolationism Essay1668 Words   |  7 PagesDuring the 1920’s, the economy of America was thriving. The First World War had created new jobs and industries; members of society, such as women, were becoming more profound in society and their roles were becoming redefined. The United States was emerging as the industrial giant of the world. To protect the American consumers from imported goods from Europe and encourage American products, the government of the United States imposed high tariffs. 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A Little Brief Background On The Family Farm By Sylvia...

Sylvia Bojcvuk, born to Alexander and Albina Bojcvuk on their family farm on January 19th, 1928 in Ukraine. Little did this young baby girl know she was about to endure a tragic, yet adventurous life that would impact generations. A little brief background on Ukraine at the time of Sylvia’s youth in 1941 Germany and Romania invaded Ukraine changing the country to Romania, then 1944 Soviet soldier’s invaded naming it back to Ukraine, which seems to come full circle to today with the constant battle of Russia attempting to merge Ukraine into Russia for good. Unfortunately, Soviet soldiers have a dark history of raping many of the young girls when they invaded Ukraine in 1944. Sylvia was sixteen at the time and her mother and father hid her in their local farm, this constant hiding lead to Albina decided they could no longer remain in Ukraine, which is the beginning of Sylvia Bojcvuk’s pilgrimage to a better life. The Bojcvuk family began by taking a train out of Ukraine, hoping to go South where both Sylvia’s older brother and sister currently resided, but the Soviet soldiers were blocking passage to the South so they had to go west, leaving behind Sylvia’s brother, Adolf, and sister, Eleanor. Unfortunately, Sylvia was never again reunited with her siblings. Adolf Bojcvuk later died of brain cancer in the 1980’s, and Eleanor Bojcvuk resides in Romania today in her ninety’s. Taking the train west, the Bojcvuk’s resided in Austria where Sylvia attended nursing school,

Miscommunication Facilities Management

Question: Discuss about the Miscommunication in Facilities Management. Answer: Typically, managerial skills can be classified into three categories: human skills, technical skills and conceptual skills, (Rue, Byars and Ibrahim 2012). In this essay, two business skills that were utilized in order to manage an incident that resulted due to miscommunication and lack of time will be discussed. Additionally, the skill assessment tools and theories will be discussed here along with the application of each of these theories to the identified issue. Concrete experience: Managers should possess a set of specific skills to effectively perform their jobs. Managerial skills are the tactics that are used by the manger, in an organization, for completion of their responsibilities and duties. The use of the skill, abilities, base and knowledge, to increase the productivity of those who they manage are part of the managerial skills (Certo and Certo 2013). I work for Hyderabad-based IT Company in India named as ZenQ, which provides services in the various sectors such as education, healthcare, e-commerce, etc. In the year 2009, my company gave two other employees and me the responsibility to develop software for the client. The whole project was headed by me. The first job that was required to complete the project was designing the software. I assigned this task to one of the two employees and provided complete instruction regarding the software. While they were developing the software, I found difficulty and realized that the design was incorrect. This happened due to time constraint and lack of communication between my colleagues and me. I felt irresponsible and morally I was disappointed. The problem was solved by the application of two skills, i.e. interpersonal skills or human skills and conceptual skills (Levy and Ramim 2015). Reflective observation: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a tool used to explain the personality theory which deals with the differences between individuals and it is used in improving the relationship, developing effective leadership skills, etc. There are four different dimensions of the MBTI and they are introversion and extroversion, intuition and sensing, feeling and thinking, perception and judging. Generally MBTI, is used to help a person develop their self-awareness through an understanding of their preferences and how these can be used during the interaction. In the above incidence, I have used my interpersonal skills to bring about improvement in the project design (Divleli and Ergun 2015). Firstly I have developed self-awareness to understand what I want and then through interaction explained this to the employees through effective verbal communication. This is how the MBTI skill assessment was used. Hence the MBTI skill assessment can help the managers to identify their level of success of their interpersonal skills (Raskin et al. 2014). The Personal Assessment of Management Skills (PAMS) is a tool that is used by the managers personally for identification of their capabilities. Managers prefer this skill assessment tool as it helps them in knowing and identifying the role of their manager and skills that are needed to perform their job successfully. Managers often focus less on good management and more on the exciting work of the leadership. To be a great manager, one must possess an efficient set of skills from delegation to the planning of work (Alexander 2013). The PAMS skill assessment test helps the managers in knowing how successful have they been in their application of their skills in all areas of management. The PAMS helps the managers to identify their areas of strength and weakness so that they can manage both. As a manager, the goal should be able to meet the competencies of skills so that the team can develop and meet their objectives efficiently. The PAMS test helps in improving the conceptual skill of the managers. The conceptual skills are those skills, which is utilized by the managers for problem solving and decision-making. As a manager, I used this skill assessment to improve my conceptual skills and that is how, I was able to apply this skill at a time when there was a requirement of application of conceptual skill. Abstract Conceptualization: The theories related to human or interpersonal skills are as follows: Uncertainty Reduction Theory: This theory is a reflection of socio-physiological perspective. It addresses issues related to the basic process that how we gain knowledge about other people. Since people have difficulty with uncertainty, they should be able to predict behavior and be motivated to seek more and more information about people. This theory aims at improving the communication skills of people through interaction. Proper interaction and communication reduce uncertainty amongst people and this helps people in achieving their goals (Hall et al. 2014). According to this theory, high level of uncertainty amongst people increases uncertainty and decrease of uncertainty amongst people increases communication amongst people. This theory can be related to the interpersonal skill of managers they also need to maintain good communication with their colleagues or with those who report to the managers. Hence, the theory is relevant to the human skills of managers (Mujtaba 2013). Social Exchange Theory This theory is a symbol of social interaction. This theory gives a detail as to why and when people reveal certain information about themselves. This theory is regarded as the foundation of interpersonal relationships. This theory allows people to strengthen their relationships with others and colleagues. The importance of social interaction is revealed in theory. This theory relates human interaction with the economic transaction, as this increases rewards and minimizes punishment. This theory is also related to the communication skills of the manager, as they should increase the rewards of their colleagues by frequently praising them for their good work and giving proper feedback in case they have made mistakes (Divleli and Ergun 2015). The conceptual skills of a Manager can be related to the following theory: Generative Theory of Problem Solving: It is a mark of human intelligence if one is able to solve complex problems. Human beings have the capability of solving complex problems by using different strategies. The system of cognitive theory helps people to solve complex problems. This theory focuses on solving complex problems in a professional environment (Hall et al. 2014). Additionally, this theory also helps the manager to understand the importance of their role in the organization. This theory allows manger to identify the issues and solve them appropriately. It also helps the manager in understanding the interests of the people who are involved in some issue. A manager who is good at solving problem will list the issues and evaluate those issues based on the interests of the workplace. Effective problem solving takes a lot of time and attention. If a problem is not solved with proper time and attention then the problem is not solved effectively. The conceptual skill of managerial skill can be related to this theory as the conceptual skill helps in effective problem solving. It has been seen in many instances that due to lack of problem solving skills, interpersonal relationships fail and business relationships fail. The success of measurement is not when one faces difficult problems; success is measured when one is able to address the problem effectively (Alexander 2013). Active Experimentation: In section 3 of the assignment, theories were identified related to interpersonal skills and conceptual skills. For interpersonal or communication skills, the uncertainty reduction theory and social exchange theory was identified. These skills are helpful as interaction is the key factor in this theory. As a manager, I should make my colleagues feel comfortable and the level of comfort can be increased only by using effective communication skills. At the time when the employees were making the software, it was identified that the software had not met the requirements. Only when I communicated with my colleagues I found that that due to miscommunication they failed to understand the requirements because of which the software was not designed properly. If at the stage of allotment and understanding, if they communicated their issues with me, the problem at its initial level could have been solved easily. These issues made me realize that communication is the only way that helps in brea king the barrier between my colleagues and me. The second skill that I have used to solve the issue is conceptual skill. This skill enabled me to solve the existing problem and helped me in achieving my aim. For this skill, I felt that the generative theory of problem solving is the most suitable of all. This theory allowed me to, properly analyze the issue first and then I could come up with resolutions for addressing the issues. In the given scenario where the employees failed to understand the requirements was an identification of a big issue. However, the problem was resolved easily due to the application of the generative theory. Application of managerial skills seems easy. However, it is not so as it has many associated restrictions with it. Few examples are lack of time, lack of resources and lack of confidence within the employees. Such issues need to be addressed by the manager by improving their managerial skills such as communication skills, interpersonal skills and conceptual skills. Only when the managers are able to improve their managerial skills properly, they will be able to handle complex problems that take place within the organization. A minimum of six months time will be required to address the issues related to managerial skills. It is not something for which one can obtain proper training, it comes only with experience, as and when a manager solves complex situations. Additionally, managers can improve their skills by defining their vision and broadcasting it properly, this means that a manager should be well versed with the aims and objectives of the company and he should know the ways of a chieving them so that he is able to guide others in achieving the same goal. Conclusion: Conclusively, it may be stated that managers have many duties and responsibilities that needs to be addressed appropriately. Managers are regarded as the binding factor between the employees and the directors of the company hence; they should be aware of their surroundings and remain pro active at all times. The manager is held responsible for the differences that occur within the company. Managers play a very important role in the organization and they should be aware of their role and responsibilities in the organization. References: Alexander, K., 2013.Facilities management: theory and practice. Routledge. Certo, S.C. and Certo, S.T., 2013.Modern management: Concepts and skills. Pearson Higher Ed. Divleli, M.S. and Ergun, E., 2015. MANAGER EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY: THE EFFECT OF SKILLS ON DIFFERENT LEVEL MANAGEMENT.International Journal of Management Human Resources,3(1). Hall, D.L., Lattie, E.G., Antoni, M.H., Fletcher, M.A., Czaja, S., Perdomo, D. and Klimas, N.G., 2014. Stress management skills, cortisol awakening response, and post-exertional malaise in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.Psychoneuroendocrinology,49, pp.26-31. Levy, Y. and Ramim, M.M., 2015. The Effect of Competence-Based Simulations on Management Skills Enhancements in E-Learning Courses. Mujtaba, B.G., 2013.Managerial skills and practices for global leadership. ILEAD Academy. Penedo, F.J., Benedict, C., Zhou, E.S., Rasheed, M., Traeger, L., Kava, B.R., Soloway, M., Czaja, S. and Antoni, M.H., 2013. Association of stress management skills and perceived stress with physical and emotional well-being among advanced prostrate cancer survivors following androgen deprivation treatment.Journal of clinical psychology in medical settings,20(1), pp.25-32. Raskin, S.A., Maye, J., Rogers, A., Correll, D., Zamroziewicz, M. and Kurtz, M., 2014. Prospective memory in schizophrenia: Relationship to medication management skills, neurocognition, and symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia.Neuropsychology,28(3), p.359. Rue, L., Byars, L. and Ibrahim, N., 2012.Management: Skills Application. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Yanez, B., Bustillo, N.E., Antoni, M.H., Lechner, S.C., Dahn, J., Kava, B. and Penedo, F.J., 2015. The importance of perceived stress management skills for patients with prostate cancer in active surveillance.Journal of behavioral medicine,38(2), pp.214-223.

The Job Cuts in the U.S. Postal Service

Chapter One The article written by Lisa Rein discusses the expected job cuts in the U.S. Postal Service; in particular, the author reports that approximately 7,500 jobs are going to be eliminated in the near future (Rein unpaged).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Job Cuts in the U.S. Postal Service specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To a great extent, this policy is aimed at reducing the administrative costs of the government; nevertheless, the representatives of the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC) argue that these reductions will result in numerous delays in mail delivery (Rein unpaged). Moreover, according to the finding of PRC, the government will not be able to achieve the expected savings (Rein unpaged). On the whole, this initiative can pose a significant threat to the infrastructure of the country (Rein unpaged). This article is closely related to the several the concepts discussed in Chapter One of th e textbook; in this case, special attention should be paid to government corporations and regulatory commissions that perform different functions and interact with one another; for example, the Postal Service can be a government corporation that serves the needs of the population. In turn, regulatory commissions like the PRC are supposed to control and monitor different economic relations within the country. The situation described by Lisa Rein illustrates the conflict between these agencies of the government. Chapter Two Another important event that should be discussed is the intention of the U.S. Supreme Court to review the federal policies regarding same-sex marriage; this issue is closely examined in the article by Adam Liptak. According to the author, the U.S. Supreme Court may review and even reject the legal definition of marriage as a union of a man and a woman; the judges may exclude the notion of gender from this definition (Liptak unpaged). Adam Liptak emphasizes the idea that nowadays the decisions regarding the status of same-sex marriages are taken by the governments of separate states of the country; in contrast, a new definition of marriage can legitimize the wedlock of same-sex couples and the consent of state governments may not be required. These are the main implication of this case, but at this point it is too early to speak the changes in the legislation of the United States, but this legal debate indicates at a dramatic shift in the public opinion.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This event is linked to one of the concepts mentioned in the Chapter Two of the textbook, namely the division of the government into three branches. They have to perform different tasks such as the development of laws, the enforcement of these legal acts and their interpretation. The actions of the Supreme Court indicate that judicial and legislative bran ches of the government can interact with one another in effort to change the laws of the country. Chapter Three The recent presidential campaign and the struggle between Barack Obama and Mitt Romney have attracted much attention of the press; in his article, Sean Sullivan examines the disagreement between these politicians regarding such an issue as the redistribution of wealth (Sullivan unpaged). In particular, Sean Sullivan refers to the words of Barack Obama who said that the government should ensure every citizen of the United States should have equal opportunities (Sullivan unpaged). In part, this goal can be achieved through the redistribution of wealth (Sullivan unpaged). Mitt Romney responded to this argument by saying that such an approach could undermine the core values of the country, for example, the right to property and income (Sullivan unpaged). The events described by the author are closely tied to the ideas explored in our readings, for example, the classic and mode rn dilemmas of the government discussed in the Chapter Three. The redistribution of wealth is related to the modern dilemma, namely the need to promote equality in the society and the need to ensure the individual freedom of citizens. Barack Obama and Mitt Romney represent two different to the solution of this dilemma; Obama places emphasis on equality while, Romney stresses the individual freedom of citizen and their right to property (Sullivan unpaged). Therefore, the concepts discussed in the readings have significant implications for modern-day politics. Chapter Four The article written by Phillip Rucker describes the attempts of the Republican Party to reduce the role of the trade unions in Michigan (Rucker unpaged). In particular, the author focuses on the so-called right-to-work laws according to which employees are not obliged to join the union and pay any fees to these organizations (Rucker unpaged). One can say that this legislation can almost entirely exclude trade unions from the negotiations between workers and private businesses; overall, this change is more likely to benefit the employers who can dictate their terms to employees (Rucker unpaged). The critics of right-to-work laws believe that these legal changes can undermine the rights of workers; more importantly, this policy can deprive the Republican Party of its influence in Michigan for a very long time (Rucker unpaged). This article is closely related to the issues covered in the textbook; in this case, special attention should be paid to the role of interest groups that can attract the attention of policy-makers to certain problems or issues and promote legal specific changes. The situation described in the article illustrates the conflict between several interests groups, namely the employers and trade unions; in this case, they have very different goals and priorities that do not coincide with one another.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Job Cuts in the U.S. Postal Service specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Chapter Five In his article, Sean Sullivan discusses the recent disagreement between Democrats and Republicans; in particular, the politicians debate such issues as spending cuts and tax increases (Entitlement debate, unpaged). According to the author, the Republicans oppose to the increased taxes for the wealthiest citizens of the United States; in contrast, Democrats believe that this policy is necessary to fund governmental programs such as Medicare (Entitlement debate, unpaged). In the opinion of the Republican politicians, such strategies are more likely to harm middle-class people, rather than benefit them (Entitlement debate, unpaged). In turn, Democrats believe that this strategy is not likely to reduce the income of many residents. On the whole, this debate is closely tied to the questions discussed in Chapter 5, for example, such concepts as pluralism and majoritarianism. This disagreement illustrates the principles of pluralism that stresses the needs of different groups. It seems that pluralism ensures that the needs of particular groups are not disregarded by policy-makers who should remember that their decisions can have far-reaching implications for a great number of people. In contrast, majoritarianism in the Congress can result in the situation when there is no debate or discussion among legislators. This is one the main dangers that politician should avoid when discussing legal or social problems. Works Cited Liptak, A. â€Å"Justices to Hear Two Challenges on Gay Marriage.† The New York  Times, 2012. Web. Rein, L. â€Å"U. S. Postal Service announces sweeping job cuts, district office closures.† The Washington Post, 2011. Web. Rucker, P. â€Å"In Michigan, heart of organized labor, Republicans push to limit union power.† The Washington Post, 2012. Web. Sullivan, S. ‘Romney draws attention to Obama ‘redistributio n’ remark from 1998.’ The Washington Post,  2012. Web.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More —-. ‘Entitlement debate sparks disagreement along party lines.’ The  Washington Post.  Web. This essay on The Job Cuts in the U.S. Postal Service was written and submitted by user Travis Bennett to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

10 Medicine Essay Topics Meet Great Ideas to Write an Essay about Nursing

10 Medicine Essay Topics Meet Great Ideas to Write an Essay about Nursing Nursing essay writing is a specific process that is usually given to a student to check out the capabilities, to judge the situation, and issue a personal opinion based on existing evidence and information basis that is in possession of the investigating person. The whole education process of the nursing faculty contains multiple aspects, and the taxonomy of written assignments differs greatly starting with generalized topics where the basic goal is to describe the case at the starter levels and ending with some more complicated tasks, like developing the care plans, solutions to health issues or even investigations on the effectiveness of some of the group of remedies. Facts for Making the Research Paper of a Decent Quality Nursing is a fascinating profession and there are a lot of facts in favor of studying and working in this field. Below, you will find ten interesting facts regarding nursing that may surely attract your attention and make you want to write and research the medical world. Nursing is among the oldest official professions.  You will be surprised to hear, but the first nursing school was organized in 250 BC in India. The first nursing students were mostly males due to religious issues, and only in the middle of 15th century, women were taught to become doctors’ assistants. Nursing encompasses a variety of sciences.  Nursing is not just a profession of taking care of people. It is an art that combines equally mathematics, biology, medicine. That is why it will always be interesting to conduct research projects on various topics. In addition, nursing workers will gain numerous knowledge with practical application. You can pick out of 100 nursing professions.  A nursing profession is not just a work of a nurse as most people could have imagined. There are options for hospice work, professional caretaker, doctor assistant, and many other professions – each with personal specifics. Such a variety of jobs will surely allow finding the sphere of personal interests. Nursing is recognized as one of the most trustworthy professions. According to popular social queries, the nursing professions are considered the most trustworthy and reliable ones, together with the profession of teachers. Nursing workers have got a higher level of empathy, and it has been proven by an international association of psychologists. During work shift, nurses walk about 5 miles daily. The labor of a medical worker requires a lot of work. In order to provide assistance to all patients under guidance, it is necessary to walk over 5 miles during the shift. That isa quite amazing distance for such a type of work. Nursing is among top most popular professions in the US. The USA counts 2.6 workers in the field of nursing, and that is quite a great amount of people. Such popularity is caused due to respect towards the profession and its necessity in the society. The basics of nursing are universal. The fundamental is international and universal. That is why it is possible to find a job of a nurse in any part of the world. The first aid assistance is often needed so it is possible to become a traveling nurse. Nursing faculty is predominating among other medical disciplines. Due to its availability, the nursing education is selected by numerous students. It grants 100% of working places and amazing practice. Nurses work all over the world. It is hard to find a place where a qualified medical worker is not needed. There are numerous programs which require the services of a nursing worker, and it is a great chance to gain the amazing experience. The profession of a nurse equals doctors in some aspects. The advanced nurses are capable to do the same things that only certified practitioners used to do. They can provide a thorough examination of the patient and even issue the prescription medicine. There is a number of similar nuances which prove the growth of the profession. The recommendations given above should be combined with the guidelines that are issued in the university, and the positive result will not keep you waiting. All the facts presented here can also be applicable not only to writing nursing presentation topics but also to other faculties and specialties as fundamental principles of academic writing are easily applicable to various fields of science. References: Cottrell, S. 2003 Critical thinking skills: developing effective analysis and argument. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. https://elearn.uni-sofia.bg/pluginfile.php/76858/mod_resource/content/1/%5BStella_Cottrell%5D_Critical_Thinking_Skills_Develo(BookFi.org).pdf Greetham, B. How to write better essays, Basingstoke: Palgrave http://medicine.kaums.ac.ir/uploadedfiles/files/how_write_better_essays.pdf American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed.). Washington DC http://lumenjournals.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/APA6thEdition.pdf Janice M. Morse, PhD (Nurs), PhD (Anthro), FCAHS, FAAN. Analyzing and Conceptualizing the Theoretical Foundations of Nursing 2017. Springer Publishing Company. http://lghttp.48653.nexcesscdn.net/80223CF/springer-static/media/samplechapters/9780826161017/9780826161017_chapter.pdf Hesook Suzie Kim, PhD, RN. The Nature of Theoretical Thinking in Nursing. 2010 Springer Publishing Company http://media.axon.es/pdf/79516.pdf Dr. Donna Hallas and Dr. Harriet R. Feldman (2012). A Guide to Scholarly Writing in Nursing. Integrating Advanced Writing Content into a Scholarly Inquiry in Nursing Course https://www.mnsu.edu/success/tutoring/nursing_writing.pdf

How to Avoid Common Mistakes in English - Good vs. Well

How to Avoid Common Mistakes in English - Good vs. Well Good is often mistakenly used in place of well by both native and non-native speakers. Take a look at the differences between the adjective and adverb form which is certainly one of the most common mistakes in English. The most important distinction is that well describes how someone does something, whereas good is used to describe a noun such as good times, good food, etc. Good or Well Good is an adjective and well is an adverb. Many people, including many native speakers, incorrectly use the adjective form good, rather than the adverb well. Examples: I did good on the test. INCORRECT! - Correct form: I did well on the test.She played the game good. INCORRECT! - Correct form: She played the game well. Use the adjective form good when describing something or someone. In other words, use good when stating how something or someone is. Examples: She is a good tennis player.Tom thinks he is a good listener. Use the adverb form well when describing how something or someone does something. Examples: She did extremely well on the exam.Our parents think we speak English well.

Fitting into society is not the easy way Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fitting into society is not the easy way - Essay Example At first, I found it difficult and impossible to adjust there as I was very weak in English. The condition of my written and spoken English may be compared to the situation of mother’s English in Amy Tan’s novel. As Amy describes it â€Å"I can think of no way to describe it other than â€Å"broken,† as if it were damaged and needed to be fixed, as if it lacked a certain wholeness and soundness† (62). I used to get irritated and annoyed while communicating to friends, teachers and other associates. The difference of language and accent made me feel low and helpless. My social circle was shortened to an extent that I felt isolated and lonely. This was the worst effect of moving from my native land to a new state. In China, we used to live and work in groups. Our decisions were based on the suggestions and perceptions of others. However, the American culture emphasizes on individuality and personal decision making. I found it really difficult to choose everything from the choice of my clothes to the academic field which I had to opt. In addition to this, the Chinese culture places more emphasis on the respect and acting upon on elders advices. I used to respect them and our communication ways with elders was more respectful and loving with children. However, in America, I experienced a major flaw in the society. Youngsters do not tend to give that level of respect and importance to elders which I was habitual of. I expected the same respect from the youngsters and loving attitude from the elders. However, this misconception ended as I experienced certain events and faced behaviors of American people in the park. I went out to the park with my college friends. It was a wonderful day. Everyone was enjoying and we were cracking jokes, listening to music and having fun. The first thing that irritated me was the song choice which differed greatly. But since most of the Americans

Community Based Correctional Program Research Proposal

Community Based Correctional Program - Research Proposal Example The program is also aimed at assessing the behavioral and psychological traits of individuals in the program, which lead them to participate in chemical abuse. 1. The first objective of the program is to provide primary counseling services for the individuals who have a chemical abuse problem (Marlowe, 2010). This objective will also focus on individualized treatment of the individuals, coupled with constant monitoring and assessment of the offenders. 2. Provide the clients in the program with a highly specialized treatment service for the period in which they are in the program. This will include a completely structured treatment and therapeutic treatment service aimed at identifying and reducing the root of the chemical abuse problem (CCP, 2012). 5. Provide other services that help in improving the chemical and psychological health of the client. These services include anger management, parenting skills, cultural, gender sensitivity, and alcoholic control (CCP, 2012). Since the program is meant to compliment the services of the state in the provision of rehabilitation services, the main clientele served by the program will be individuals who violate their paroles to a level that necessitates their return to prison (Lipton, 1999). These individuals will be mainly composed of violating parolees who are deemed to have a chemical abuse nature and must undergo drug rehabilitation. The second groups to be served by the program include offenders currently undergoing incarceration at state prisons, but are mandated by the regulators and prison boards to undergo chemical rehabilitation (Lipton, 1999). These offenders will be taken out of their prisons and kept in the program facilities. Other clients will be the offenders who are ordered by respective courts to serve chemical dependency programs prior to their release form state and government prison services (Lipton, 1999).

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay Example for Free

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay Electricity load-shedding in Pakistan is one of the biggest domestic problems faced by the country. Along with the problems that the power shortage brings for the society as a whole and for the inhabitants of the society the power failures seriously curbs the economic potential of the economy. Considering most of the medium and large scale industries of Pakistan depend on machinery that is run by electricity they are heavily dependent on the electricity supply, with the electricity supply cut their production capacity decreases dramatically as well. Since most of Pakistani manufacturing industries lack the self generation ability hence this power outage is even more harmful to their business. So eventually what ends up happening is that along with creating general distress among the public this power shortage reduces the production capacity of the firms and hence reduces the aggregate supply. Aggregate supply can be defined as the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a specific time period. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. In the long run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be vertical In the short run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be upward sloping SRAS (Short run aggregate demand) shows total planned output when prices in the economy can change but the prices and productivity of all factor inputs e.g. wage rates and the state of technology are assumed to be held constant. LRAS (Long run aggregate supply) shows total planned output when both prices and average wage rates can change – it is a measure of a country’s potential output and the concept is linked strongly to that of the production possibility frontier The SRAS and LRAS can be graphically represented as follows: SRAS LRAS Now what happens is that firms will have to cut down their production process in order to effectively meet the costs incurred or it will come to a position of losses. The cutting down of the production process means decreasing the supply of the firm. As a firm produces lesser than it did before, fewer workers will be needed because the excess labor has been made redundant since fewer employees are now needed to produce lesser output. Moreover, the firm can no longer afford to employ as many workers as it did before. Hence this will eventually give rise to over the course of time as many workers have will have to be laid off in industries due to low activity. This will invariably decrease the total consumption of the population because as the unemployment increases the purchasing power of the people also falls. They are now earning fewer wages and the income effect will lead to a drastic decrease in the consumption. Consumption is one of the major contributors in the aggregate demand function. We define aggregate demand as the total demand for all goods and services produced in the economy at a given time and price level. It is the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be produced at all possible price levels. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources.[3] Where: C = Consumption I = Investment G = Government Spending (X-M) = Net Exports – Net Imports The graph for AD is as follows: It is often cited that the aggregate demand curve is downward sloping because at lower price levels a greater quantity is demanded. While this is correct at the microeconomic, single good level, at the aggregate level this is incorrect. The aggregate demand curve is in fact downward sloping as a result of the Pigou’s wealth effect. Pigou effect is an economics term that refers to the stimulation of output and employment caused by increasing consumption due to a rise in real balances of wealth, particularly during deflation. Keynes said that a drop in aggregate demand could lower employment and the price level (deflationary depression). Hence it can be said that any decrease in the consumption would bring about a fall in the aggregate demand. Consumer demand or consumption, that is also known as personal consumption expenditure, is the largest part of aggregate demand or effective demand at the macroeconomic level. The interaction of the aggregate demand and aggregate supply gives us the market equilibrium. Now as has been previously pointed out, frequent power cuts will mean a cutting down of the production process which invariably brings about a decrease in the aggregate supply. What happens is that as aggregate supply decreases with the aggregate demand being constant (as obviously people would still be demanding the same quantity of products) inflation will increase as shown below: Now here we can see with AS moving to a new point as it decreases it is actually increasing the price level which results in inflation and as a result unemployment increases as well, because when there is inflation in the economy there is a rise in prices hence there is a fall in the demand of goods and services and the producers reduce their production level and as a result they end up decreasing the number of workers which means unemployment increases. Unemployment on the macroeconomic level is a sign that the economy is operating below its full production capacity, this is a sign of inefficiency. Here we can see that inflation is playing a key role in determining the employment level. Hence we’ll have a look at how load shedding gives rise to inflation. Inflation is conventionally defined as a general increase in the level of prices in goods and services. One of the effects of inflation is a decrease in the value of money. During the course of inflation income and prices do not increase at the same rate; the purchasing power of the nation as a whole drops. One of the reasons of inflation is surplus amount of money which causes the prices to rise at an extremely high rate. Other than that, another reason for inflation is the rise in the costs of production which in turn increases the prices of the products. Moreover inflation occurs when aggregate supply exceeds aggregate demand hence increasing the price level. In the context of load shedding though, we see that it has been a triggering stimulus for initiating inflation. The CPI inflation averaged 23.5 percent in July-February 2008-09 in Pakistan as against 8.9 percent in the comparable period of last year. The deficiency of energy sources is causing stir on the demand side of the economic picture causing an increase in the demand for energy sources as it has a huge effect on all spheres of economy of a nation having a primary influence on industry level. The insufficiency of the available energy sources is causing the people to demand more electricity to meet their needs on the individual as well as industry level which in turn when observed in the context of graphical representation shows a shift of the demand curve to the right causing a shift of the equilibrium position increasing the price level. (Demand-Pull Inflation) The increase in level of inflation has also been caused due to an increase in the cost of energy sources. The scarcity of the energy resources available to the industries is making them shift to other sources for the purpose of energy generation which in turn has caused their costs to sky rocket. Now, due to the heavy burden that everyone has to face in this state of affairs is causing a shift of the AS curve in terms of graphical representation of the scenario. The increase in the costs of production for the industries in turn affects the aggregate supply causing it to decline. This shift of the AS curve to the left also then causes the equilibrium price level to rise, in turn stirring up inflation in the society (Cost- Push Inflation). The power tariffs imposed would further increase the industrial input cost which is already very high making the products more expensive in the domestic as well as the international market. As far as the international market is concerned, the competitive edge of a country would be lost as their goods are more expensive in comparison to the other countries. The two types of inflation can be graphically represented as follows: Demand- Pull Inflation

Principles of good customer service Essay -- Business and Management S

Principles of good customer service It is very important to give excellent customer service when out in resort working as a rep. customer service can be given by one person or alternatively it can be given out as a team. This is to ensure that the customers get the best from there holiday, and so that they build a rapor with you to gain trust for them to come back time and time again. Seeing the customer happy also benefits you as a rep and gives you good job satisfaction. There are many different types of giving good customer service: Body language When dealing with a customer you must always use positive body language. Giving lots of eye contact is always good because the customer feels that you are giving them you full attention and that you are developing an understanding of there needs. Also facial expressions reveal opinions, emotions and moods better than any of the other body parts. The way that your face expresses feelings i.e. smiling or frowning will always allow the customer to discover how you are feeling towards them. First Impressions First impressions count in any business, particularly overseas where dealing with people is such an important part of the work. You need to understand that the way you and your organisation present themselves to customers has a direct influence on their enjoyment, your job satisfaction and the future success of the organisation that employs you. In particular when meeting a customer for the first ...

African American Women and Aids Essay

In the United States one of the leading causes of death for African American women is HIV/AIDS. This paper is on the African American women living in the United States with HIV/AIDS, how the health care policy affects them and the different stakeholders that are being affected by the health care policy. â€Å"HIV is the virus that causes AIDS† (2010). The virus weakens the body’s defense system, this makes it hard on the body to fight off other health problems and as time goes by the body becomes less able to fight off diseases. In the United States there was one in four new cases, which women account for and two in three are African American women who got HIV from unprotected sex with a man. African Americans women in 2009 accounted for 30% of the estimated new HIV infections among all African Americans. African American women were 15 time as high as the rate for white women for new HIV infections, and more than three times higher as that of Latina women (â€Å"HIV among African Americans,† 2011). Sexually transmitted infection (STIs) is another way that HIV is most commonly spread to women through sexual contact. African American women are known to have higher rates of STIs than any other race. Many African American women are known to have had sex with an African American man that was incarcerated at one time or another. These African American men in the community are known to cycle in and out of prison and have become risk factors for passing HIV on to African American woman. Other cases are African American men â€Å"on the down low† these are men who have sex with men and women. Many African American women are not aware of them because they do not identify themselves as gay or bisexual African American women that become pregnant also spread HIV to their unborn infant if they do not receive earlier in pregnancy treatments and prenatal care. A person can feel healthy and have HIV. There are steps to take for protection to stop the spread of HIV. This is by using latex condoms every time you have any type of sex. Also if you inject drugs do not share needles, syringes, or anything to inject the drug into you with anyone. By following these steps you can make the different in stopping the spread of HIV.

Colonialism in America

Colonialism as the colonization of consciousness': using at least two case-studies from different periods, discuss how an interest in religion may contribute to understandings of colonial and imperial encounters. David Bliss 1 May, 2013 university of Leister Word count: 2,984 Introduction An Interest In religion may contribute to understanding of colonial and Imperial encounters by providing a window into the daily lives at colonies that can augment other sources or stand on its own.Both historical and archaeological evidence is available from periods of colonialism and this evidence can help us understand how effective these efforts were at impacting the lives of both the colonizers and colonized, and the relations between colonial and Imperial forces. Colonial history Is by no means homogeneous and each case needs to be looked at In Its own light – taking Into account the motives of all players, the geography, and pre-existing systems.Indeed, even at a certain location, the results varied. This paper examines how religion interplay with colonialism and what was the impact on certain cases to colonizers and the colonized in terms of the ‘colonization f consciousness'. It will attempt to define this term, and then provide examples with varying degrees of relevance on understanding the colonial/lamellar Interplay. Defining the question What is studied? Religion is one area of study in understanding colonial and imperial encounters.It has been identified as one of the three â€Å"M†s of imperial encounters: merchants, missionaries, and military (Choppy 2002:45). It provides a more-rounded understanding of colonial and Imperial encounters than as disparate observations. Through religious buildings and Iconography, burials, and the physical trappings of elisions orders and their representatives that are Important material expressions of religion, we have physical remains that, along with historical documents, give us insight into the lives of th e colonized and colonizers.Religious historical and material remains of past societies provide a source of information for the workings of the sacred In social life and, for the purposes of this paper, the workings of how colonial life altered natives and colonists. There has been ritual practices and symbolic systems. This continual interest in religious life has contributed to important theoretical innovations, such as the Comforts colonization f consciousness framework (ROB 2011). What is meant by ‘an interest in religion?Archaeologists often assume that ritual is a form of human action that leaves material traces, whereas religion is a more abstract symbolic system consisting of beliefs, myths, and doctrines (Insole 2004). This perception began to change with the advent of more practice-oriented approaches to the anthropology of religion (Boggling 2007). In this paper, I view an ‘interest in religion' as the historical documents and material evidence created by relig ious agents.It can certainly be argued that many of those are secular in nature rather than religious, UT the purpose of this paper is not to define religion, but to look at a broader ‘interest in religion'. In the cases of colonial encounters, the evidence we have is heavily related to missionaries and their mission of conversion in the form of direct historical documents and direct material evidence. Colonialism has been one of the most significant phenomena in the history of humankind in the last three hundred years or so.Religious evidence shows us that Christian missionaries were associated with imperialist expansion and can shed light on the understanding of these encounters. It seems probable, then, that missionaries were significant intermediaries in the construction of global Imperialism in its universalistic dimension. â€Å"Colonization of consciousness† is a process termed by Comfort & Comfort in their study of South Africa (Comfort and Comfort 1991). It is a merging of two words that are, in themselves, broad in interpretation and combined are more-so.As George Miller wrote in 1962, â€Å"Consciousness is a word worn smooth by a million tongues. † It is used in many contexts and many interpretations of those contexts. Colonization is broad concept that is not a simple process to define either. For the purposes of this paper, I will use the definition by Lane: Colonization of consciousness is â€Å"the adoption of and adherence to a particular set of beliefs that come to be manifested in the daily workings of a society and the everyday practice of its members† (Lane 2001).This does not mean a complete replacement of pre-existing beliefs and way of life (Williams and Chairman). Colonization of consciousness involves a changing of the daily life. Colonialism and imperialism â€Å"colonize consciousness† by shaping everyday life at a global level, influencing language spoken, the clothes worn, food eaten, and over tim e, arts and culture (Blatant and Burton 2005:1). Answering the Question In some instances, military actions were lock-step with imperial interests, but in many this is not the case. Studying religion will not provide a full understanding of the colonial/imperial interplay.Historian Andrew Porter identifies three separate literatures within which the role of religion has conventionally been considered: imperial historiography, imperial histories of religious/ecclesiastical developments, and, finally, regional or colonial histories (Porter 2004). He sees a need to bridge the historiography gulfs' arising from their relative discreteness. By viewing these missions and empire was more variable and complex than is commonly acknowledged (Keenan 2004: xii-iii). The writings of missionaries often provide an alternative reading to narratives written by colonial employees and military.By studying mission texts, physical evidence, and ritual evidence, we can see how the daily lives of the colo nized and colonizers changed through their interactions. Religious texts shed light on the relationship between colonial and imperial encounters either as agents of those encounters, such as missionaries in China or as hire-parties such as in the colonizing of the Yucatan; at times, in a foreign environment, with foreign languages, laws, and customs to navigate – those both of the colonizer and the colonized – missionaries' writings provide an insight into the frameworks of the colonial governments amongst which they worked.Evidence needs to be viewed critically when looking to religion to understand colonialism. Large churches housing many native members does not mean their beliefs or daily lives were any different than before. Detailed textual accounts of conversions and missionary successes may not reflect the true consciousness of the datives as that may not have been the goal of the texts or that they written with bias. In many cases, such as Africa and the Yucata n, the number of missionaries was extremely small and the entire operation relied on the perception of success back home.It stands to reason that narratives and official documents idealized the missionary mission and success. We simply cannot be sure how successful the impact of conversion as an act had on changing the consciousness of the population in any significant way or how large a role missionaries actually played in colonization, or that the role was as an agent of empire. To add to the ambiguity, direct texts from native population are often not available to balance these accounts.Historical archaeologists have made major contributions to the understanding of the religion and ritual of peoples who have remained underrepresented (or misrepresented) in the historical record, such as colonized peoples (Hanks 2010). What we also do have evidence of in some cases, such as the Yucatan or China, is the impact Western religion had on contemporary residents. Case Study: Tsarina Sout h Africa: 19th Century In Southern Tsarina – chiefly the Dilating and Erelong, Christian missions have laded a role in shaping African consciousness.Although the Christian missionary activity exercised over the South Africans presented itself in purely religious terms, the impact it had and the way it substantially changed the everyday life of the subjects of colonization shows how it was in fact tightly bound with the discourse of modern imperialism itself and how it stepped across the religious sphere and affected other spheres of life. The European colonization of Africa was often less a directly coercive conquest than a persuasive attempt to colonize consciousness, to make people by redefining the taken-for-granted surfaces of their everyday worlds.This is evident in the colonial evangelism among the Southern Tsarina (Comfort and Comfort 1991 : 29). On the one hand, the missionaries openly used all the resources and techniques at their disposal to make an impact on the Af ricans; that is, to convert people through reasoned argument and bend chiefs to their wills, to affect the power embedded in the practices of their culture, practices that were gradually inculcated into the natives even as they refused to hear the gospel and struggled to MIT the impact of colonization on their communities.The material record from missions can be examined as a reflection of the idea of changing cultural imagination and reordering of a conceptual universe. Religion again places a central role here, suggesting â€Å"of the many aspects of the material record that might reflect native conceptual gains, the most revealing are in the record of Christianization process†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ But again stressing â€Å"archaeologists must be careful not to adopt the simplistic approach of colonial Catholic priests and interpret the material culture of mission ties as manifestations of wither acceptance or rejection of Christianity' (Comfort and Comfort 1991 : 29).Although resistanc e to this mission existed, expressions of resistance do not preclude the colonization of consciousness. A complete replacement of the daily life and beliefs of a host society is not required to bring about a colonization of consciousness. In fact, new forms of defiance to imperial rule could be argued as well to be a change in daily life brought on by the missionaries and imperial agents. The missionaries played a political role in colonizing the natives ND serving as agents for the crown through which the Tsarina were reworked to the measure of capitalist civilization.However, what has to be kept in mind is that primarily the missionaries' side is heard and they have every reason to exclaim their success in converting the consciousness of the Tsarina. In the historical evidence, the Tsarina have little voice to share their side of the story (Comfort 1986). Studying religion in this case alone would not offer a complete picture. Imperial history tells another story of bringing repre sentative government to chiefdoms that, over time, exulted in coercion by British force.The colonial wars stemming from imperial ambitions on trade-routes to India and mineral deposits would not be seen through solely a religious lens. Imperial ideas of the time that pitted European countries against each other who all felt a right to own ‘new territories' is an aspect of the colonial/imperial relationship that an interest in religion alone would not evidence. Still, an interest in religion contributes to the study of colonization in South Africa and helps our understanding of the dynamics between colonial and imperial forces.Case Study: 19th and 20th Century Missions to China There are fundamental differences between Tsarina society and a large-scale bureaucratic state like China in the nineteenth century. Many of the elements identified by the Comforts as part of the package of capitalist modernity introduced by the missionaries–the plow, money, a sense of property, a nd taxation had already existed in China. Moreover, while it certainly felt the impact of Imperialism, China was never colonized.Also, unlike the British missionaries who played a decisive role (according to the Comforts) in mediating modernity to the Tsarina, the influence of he missionary body in China can seldom be separated from other avenues – commerce, publishing, officialdom, and contacts with Japan-by which foreign imperial ideas and institutions were being filtered into the empire (Dunce 2002). Nevertheless, the changes undergone by Chinese society between the mid-nineteenth century and mid-twentieth century can be seen as a transition from â€Å"tradition â€Å"to â€Å"modernity† and attributed a decisive role in the process, for good or ill, to the Western impact.This history. In the first half of the twentieth century, works written by missionaries and heir supporters claimed for the missions a great deal of the â€Å"credit† for bringing China in to the modern world. Chinese nationalist critiques from the asses, charged missionaries with imperialism or â€Å"cultural invasion,† usually meaning that Christian conversion and missionary education were intended to facilitate imperialist economic and political control by making the Chinese people docile.In contract to this, Wang Liking argues that American missionaries, rather than being tools of cultural or other imperialism, were actually engaged in â€Å"cultural exchange,† making a significant nutrition to China's modernization in the late King period (Dunce 2002). Changes in China parallel to those identified by the Comforts as part of the colonization of consciousness, such as the introduction of aspects of a Western imperial way of life.A study in these mission efforts reveals the attempted imposition of western imperial beliefs in the form of campaigns against foot binding, opium consumption, and views toward gender relations –all of which involved mi ssionaries to some degree and show Western imperialistic attitudes at the time that the West has a right to impose TTS way of life on another culture. We can see that these transformations so closely associated with the emergence of the Western nation-state can be viewed in terms of a â€Å"colonization of consciousness†.Missionaries were the field-agents of the change in Chinese life. In the end, missionaries' role as agents of imperialism or as agents of cultural exchange depends on the observer. What can be stated is that in this instance of more passive introduction of foreign culture and ideals, missionaries maybe greater agents of change than in more aggressive imperial efforts. Case Study: Yucatan: 16th Century Missionaries at times found themselves openly at odds with imperial interests.In the Yucatan, the church and imperial interests frequently clashed. Studying religion gives us a window into this relationship and the nature of colonization in this case. Missionari es had to walk a fine line between looking out for the souls of the ‘converted' and the imperial desire for conquest of resources and the native labor needed to exploit those resources. Church documents and diaries point to a separation in motives between church and state where the state clearly sought to regulate life' and the church sought to protect the natives.In this case, the limited number of friars and the promise of wealth that the colonies brought meant that the friars had little say in the regulation of life enacted by the crown's agents (Cascaras 1961). In the case of the Yucatan, it was not the missionaries who altered daily life for the ‘converts' as much as it was the crown. An interest in religion can point to heavy handedness of the crown and the ultimate subjugation that followed. While this process is evidenced in non-religious sources, details of the encounters are filled-in by religious evidence.Amman-Spanish interaction was a mixing of traditions an d practices. We see in the architecture of missions that they were influenced by the local materials and techniques. We also see in evidence for food and drink at missions that local everyday lives of the Mayans influenced the Spanish as they used native ceramics and reported to have native women cooking (Cascaras 1961). Undoubtedly Spanish and imperial society is evidenced today through religion and the quotidian. Interactions between the Spanish and natives have ultimately created a shared culture.In the Yucatan, that is evident through the religion of the region today. Religion came packaged with foreign imperial domination and its acceptance in modern day Yucatan points to the impact of cultural change as a result of colonialism. Conclusion Colonialism has been one of the most significant phenomena in the history of humankind in the last three hundred years or so. Religious evidence shows us that Christian missionaries were associated with imperialist expansion and can shed ligh t on the understanding of these encounters.It seems probable, then, that missionaries were significant intermediaries in the construction of global Imperialism in its anniversaries dimension. Colonization of consciousness is â€Å"the adoption of and adherence to a particular set of beliefs that come to be manifested in the daily workings of a society and the everyday practice of its members† (Lane 2001). The study of religious amounts to more than Just an analysis of religious change. It gives us a view into the broader consciousness. To varying degrees, in all case studies here Christian missions have played a role in shaping consciousness.Evidence needs to be viewed critically when looking to religion to understand colonialism. Large hurries housing many native members does not mean their beliefs or daily lives were any different than before. Detailed textual accounts of conversions and missionary successes may not reflect the true consciousness of the natives as that may not have been the goal of the texts or that they written with bias. The historiography examined here demonstrates how inseparable the assessment of the missionary impact is from broader questions of how to historicist nationalism and modernity.The case studies presented show how a study of religion can shed light onto the interplay between colonial and imperial encounters. While in some cases, such as Southern Tsarina, the religious agents in the field were representing imperial interests. In other cases, such as Colonial Yucatan, they were at odds with the imperial powers. These different cases result in a different light they shed on an understanding of colonial encounters. In both, the religious information needs to be treated as part of a portfolio of sources for analysis.

Iron Cage - Max Webers Theory of Rationality

Iron Cage - Max Webers Theory of Rationality One of the theoretical concepts that Max Weber, founding sociologist, is most well known for is the iron cage. Weber first presented this theory in his important and widely taught work,  The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, however, he  wrote in German, so never actually used the phrase himself. It was American sociologist Talcott Parsons who coined it, in his original translation of Webers book, published in 1930. In the original work, Weber referred to a  stahlhartes Gehuse, which literally translated means housing hard as steel. Parsons translation into iron cage, though, is largely accepted as an accurate rendering of the metaphor offered by Weber. Understanding Webers Iron Cage In  The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber presented a carefully researched historical account of how a strong Protestant work ethic and belief in living frugally helped foster the development of the capitalist economic system in the Western world. Weber explained that as the force of Protestantism decreased in social life over time, the system of capitalism remained, as did the social structure and principles of bureaucracy that had evolved along with it. This bureaucratic social structure, and the values, beliefs, and worldviews that supported and sustained it, became central to shaping social life. It was this very phenomenon that Weber conceived of as an iron cage. The reference to this concept comes on page 181 of Parsons translation. It reads: The Puritan wanted to work in a calling; we are forced to do so. For when asceticism was carried out of monastic cells into everyday life, and began to dominant worldly morality, it did its part in building the tremendous cosmos of the modern economic order. Simply put, Weber suggests that the technological and economic relationships that organized and grew out of capitalist production became themselves fundamental forces in society. Thus, if you are born into a society organized this way, with the division of labor and hierarchical social structure that comes with it, you cant help but live within this system. As such, ones life and worldview are shaped by it to such an extent that one probably cant even imagine what an alternative way of life would look like. So, those born into the cage live out its dictates, and in doing so, reproduce the cage in perpetuity. For this reason, Weber considered the iron cage a massive hindrance to freedom. Why Sociologists Embrace Webers Iron Cage This concept proved very useful to social theorists and researchers who followed Weber. Most notably, the  critical theorists associated with the Frankfurt School  in Germany, who were active during the middle of the twentieth century, elaborated on this concept. They witnessed further technological developments and their impact on capitalist production and culture  and saw that these only intensified the ability of the iron cage to shape and constrain our behavior and thought. Webers concept remains important to sociologists today because the iron cage of techno-rational thought, practices, relations, and capitalism   now a global system   shows no signs of disintegrating anytime soon. The influence of this iron cage leads to some very serious problems that social scientists and others are now working to solve. For example, how can we overcome the force of the iron cage to address the threats of climate change, produced by the very cage itself? And, how can we convince people that the system within the cage is  not  working in their best interest, evidenced by the shocking wealth inequality that divides many Western nations?

Using Context Clues to Improve Reading Comprehension

Using Context Clues to Improve Reading Comprehension Context clues can help many people with dyslexia to compensate for weak reading skills when comprehending reading passages. Context clues can significantly increase reading comprehension. According to a study completed by Rosalie P. Fink at Lesley College in Cambridge, this continues into adulthood. This study looked at 60 professional adults with dyslexia and 10 without dyslexia. All consistently read specialized information for their jobs. Those with dyslexia scored lower in spelling and required more time to read and indicated they relied on context clues, both during the study and in everyday reading, to aid in comprehension. Context Clues When you encounter a word you dont know as you are reading, you can choose to look it up in a dictionary, ignore it or use the surrounding words to help you determine what the word means. Using the words around it is using contextual clues. Even if you cant figure out the exact definition, phrases and words should be able to help you make a guess about the words meaning. Some of the ways to use context to help understand new words: Look for examples, illustrations or explanations. Difficult or uncommon words may be followed by information to help discern the meaning. The writer sometimes uses phrases to help identify examples and explanations: for example, such as, including, consists of, for instance, is like. Even without specific words introducing the meaning of an unknown word, phrases and sentences in the paragraph give further explanation, often enough to make a logical or educated guess as to the meaning of the word.Definitions are sometimes included in the text. For example, After the fire, the entire office was restricted, that is only a few people could enter, for several days. In this example, the author built the definition directly into the sentence.Sometimes surrounding words or phrases contain synonyms of the unknown word. For example, The boss complained when he was tardy, or late, for work for the third time this week.Antonyms can also be used to help readers figure out the meaning of a word. F or example, Joe was exhausted after the trip but Tom was wide awake and alert. Experiences can also be used to explain unknown words. Roger was reluctant to volunteer to help at a charity event. Last time he jumped right in and found there was much more responsibility than he was ready to take on and it took up an immense amount of time. This time, Roger decided to take it slow, offering only a few hours a month rather than whatever time was needed. His fear of making a quick decision paid off and he really enjoyed the job once he could control how much time he gave to the organization. Teaching Context Clues To help students learn to use contextual clues to learn new vocabulary words, teach them specific strategies. The following exercise can help: Using a textbook or printed worksheet, write down several new vocabulary words on the board. If using a textbook, write down the page and paragraph where the word is.Have students divide a paper into three columns.In the first column, the students should write the new vocabulary word.In the second column, the student should write down any clues in the text that help them guess the meaning of the word. Clues can be found immediately before or after the word, in the sentence before or after or even in the paragraphs around the word.The third column should contain the students guess as to what the word means. Students should review the different types of contextual clues, such as examples, synonyms, antonyms, definitions or experiences as they read through the text. If using a printout, students can use different color highlighters to mark the unknown word and the clues. Once the students make a guess, they should re-read the sentence, inserting their definition in place of the vocabulary word to see if it makes sense. Finally, students can look the word up in the dictionary to see how close they were in guessing the meaning of the word. References Literacy Development in Successful Men and Women with Dyslexia, 1998, Rosalie P. Fink, Annals of Dyslexia, Volume XLVII, pp 3311-346What Are Context Clues? Date Unknown, Staff Writer, Sacramento City CollegeWhat Contextual Clues Can I Use? Date Unknown, Presented by Lynn Figuarte, U.S. Department of Education

The Cultural Foods Values Of The US And China Reflected in The Two Essay

The Cultural Foods Values Of The US And China Reflected in The Two Capitals - Essay Example Dishes are displayed as well as consumed in a particular way. The Chinese food culture denotes that those properties that are inherent in the dishes are more significant than the nutrients they contain. Food in Beijing is also used as delineation of the Chinese cultural identity from all other cultural identities. It also remains a ritual, medicine, means of interaction and curiously an overture as well as finale to the act of coitus (Shek, 2005). To the Chinese, food also has sexual connotations. According to Gaozi, the venerable ancient Chinese philosopher, the appetite for food as also sex is fundamental to all too human nature. More than all other forms of life, consumption of food and sexual activity remain the twin basic activities of human beings. On a higher level, the quest for food and sex often transcends man’s mere survival or even sustenance, but seek artistic satisfaction and unadulterated sensual delight. As Richard Shek of California State University, Sacrament o and an authority on Chinese culture, aptly puts it â€Å"In fact, one may be tempted to conclude that the more variations and creativity in food preparation and consumption, as well as in sexual gratification, the more sophisticated and advanced the humans are† (Shek, 2005). ... So, at the time of preparing their meals, they might seek to find a balance through many ways. Chinese food should have five qualities viz., se or colour, Xing or appearance, xiang or aroma, wei or taste and chu or touch. The finished food should be a harmonious blend of natural/transformed colours of all seasonings, garnishing and ingredients and must have an attractive appearance as seen in the way the meat/vegetables are cut as well as arranged in the utensils. The food should have an aroma and should be not only appetizing but have a pleasing look as well. Finally, the touch-sensation as such food makes its entry into the eager mouth ought to conform to the level of crispness, tenderness and chewiness. Washington The Washington food culture is wholly at variance with that of the Chinese. Being the capital of the U.S and the famed centre of international power, Washington shares the food culture of not USA alone. Instead the food culture in this capital city is indeed a curious po tpourri of numerous culinary styles due to the presence of its diverse ethnical groups from all around the world and as such boast a multitude of eateries and restaurants as well as many other food avenues. This is partly owing to the city’s various foreign embassies and so is counted as an international city. This is a boon for connoisseurs of cooking, as they can find an astonishingly wide choice of ethnic cuisine without much effort. In fact people from, all parts of the planet have made Washington and its suburbs their home, bringing along with them all their vast culinary styles and tastes (Guide, 2012). According to Professor Emeritus John Ikerd of the Missouri University, â€Å"Eating makes a social statement – we eat with our family and our

Second Language Acquisition Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Second Language Acquisition - Term Paper Example The common argument has been that the acquisition of second language skills is difficult, especially for non-native speakers (Jordens and Lalleman, 7). However, this argument has been disputed by another argument holding that acquiring second language skills is not difficult. Rather, it is the poor formulation of teaching curriculum and inappropriate design of instructional methods that create the perception that the acquisition of proficiency in the second language for non-native learners is difficult (Rutherford, 47). Second Language Acquisition is akin to the process of children acquiring their speech, meaning that it requires meaningful interaction between the subject and the target language, most especially related to natural communication (Sanz, 14). My thesis, then, aims to argue that several factors affect the effective acquisition of a second language. Just as the case is with children acquiring their early speech communication skills, Second Language Acquisition entails the speakers having little concern for the utterances, and more emphasis on the delivery of the intended messages, and how the message will be interpreted (Sanz, 21). In this respect, Second Language Acquisition mostly has to do with what the learners of the second language do in the process of acquiring the skills of communicating using the second language. Nevertheless, the manner in which the second language is taught to the learners has a great influence on how well the learners will understand and acquire the skills of a second language. Therefore, while teaching a second language, it is essential that the teacher adopts a holistic approach (Gruber-Miller, n.p.). The learners of a second language have to go through different stages before they can eventually become proficient in the second language.  

History of Florence italy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

History of Florence italy - Essay Example The popes encountered disagreements among themselves due to the difference in political alliances especially between the Italian and French popes who lived in Rome, and Avignon respectively. Any religious believer serving two popes, was intolerable and would be considered as a kin to being in hopeless/helpless passenger in an over speeding driverless automobile that would claim passenger’s life unsympathetically (Bonechi 43). The resolution to the pope issue was settled in a conference organized in 1409 which led to the appointment of a third pope, though the situation continued for a while till one pope settled on in 1417. The new pope led to resilience and creation of the papal state with the headquarters based in Italy. Due to the creation of a papal state all the tithes and funding directed to the church had to be channeled into one coffer, referred to as papal banker based in Florence (Bonechi 49). By the 15th Century Florence had already been famous and prosperous historically with fortunes in the banking industry and wool trades. However, the Black Death had wiped out the Italian population in the 14th century which resulted in bankruptcy of two banks. This led to occasional famine and civil unrest coupled with plague outbreak episodes and calamities which wobbled and shook Florence and its economy for a while (Bonechi 15). During the famine and economic strive, Florentines declined to be dominated by others, leading to repulsion of both Naples and Milan’s unwelcoming advancement. Due to the repulsion, Florence gained more power than it had during the pre- Plague forging ahead to secure Pisa as one of its port (this was a geographical item which Florence had not enjoyed previously) (Bonechi 38). During the third competition, the humanist believed that man was purportedly created in the image of God (Judea Christian) and given the ability to balance ideas in a meaningful manner.

Antimitotic Prodrugs Advantages And Disadvantages

Antimitotic Prodrugs Advantages And Disadvantages Abstract The intricate prodrug therapy has made possible the synthesis and identification of novel drug discovery that have significant structural modifications or intermediate derivatives which may facilitated and enhanced therapeutic parameter during in vitro and in vivo studies. Along with improved target delivery of prodrugs provides the capability to not only overcome certain limitation of antimitotic drugs, but to increases the chances to undergo clinical phase trial studies to get in to action. Development of these new prodrugs as improved alternatives gone through from significant challenges; nevertheless these potential therapies also use to analysed and give suggestion about their further development by clinical studies. Introduction Cancer is diseases in which the bodys cells become abnormal and split without control. Cancer cells may show aggression nearby tissues. They may spread through the bloodstream and lymphatic system to other parts of the body. [1, 2, 3]. Now the days there are mainly three types of treatments are in use surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. Among these, surgery and radiotherapy are to be employed for specific treating are and chemotherapy employed during the systemic treatment of metastases in local as well as regional cancer cells. Chemotherapeutic drugs can be divided in to alkylating agents, antimetabolites plant alkaloids (antimitotics), topoisomerase inhibitors, and other antitumor agents. All of these drugs affect the cell division or DNA synthesis and translation, and function in other ways. The proliferation rate is the play the key role in for the effects of these drugs thus; they are not much selective of tumours. Chemotherapy is treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells and make them less active. It is the treatment of disease by chemicals, especially by killing micro-organisms or cancerous cells. In popular usage, it refers to antineoplastic drugs used to treat cancer or the combination of these drugs into cytotoxic standardized treatment regimen. In its non-oncological use, the term may also refer to antibiotics, long time use of chemotherapy consequences natural cell deaths in the treatments of tumour [4]. Sometime these agents produce remission and re-growth which result in proliferation of cancer cells along with resistance of drugs. Although, intense researches have been conducted in the field of cancer, there are some pioneering ideas need to come in this field to decrease toxicities, physicochemical properties and therapeutic index [5]. The use of prodrug is generally established as a strategy to improve the physicochemical, biopharmaceutical or pharmacokinetic properties of pharmacologically potent agents, and thereby increase the develop ability and usefulness of a potential drug [6,7]. The aim of the prodrug establishment is to improve (i) physicochemical properties like solubility, chemical stability, taste and odour etc. (ii) selectivity; (iii) pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic problems and (iv) therapeutic index. Thus; by these improvements, we can overcome the formulations challenges of the drugs [8, 9]. The most of the antimitotic prodrugs developed with conjugating prodrug molecules to low to high molecular weight molecules like sugars, enzymes, vitamins, antibodies, polymers and nanoparticals. These are the carriers which transport prodrug in to tumour and drug release with conjugating the drug to the carrier through a spacer that include particular point which make the specific targeting of the drug. These carriers are very complicated in the structure and demand very hard work to make carries linked prodrugs. Hetrogenecity, biodistribution, expression of multidrug resistance, interstitial pressure and amount of the drug reaching to the target site, are the problems which make the task more difficult. Along with that targeting properties will preserved or not with structural changes are major problems in the formulation of carrier liked prodrug molecules. Here I provide an overview of recent developments in targeted antimitotic prodrug and conjugate design. These are examples which, illustrating the salient features of different targeting strategies. I have focused on prodrug and conjugate examples in priclinical trials or advanced preclinical studies with advantages and disadvantages associated to each strategy are also discussed. Antimitotics In the process of mitosis eukaryotic cell isolate the chromosome in its cell nucleus into two the same sets which are divided in two nuclei. In cancer the single cell start converts from normal cell to cancerous cells by the process of mitosis. The mitosis inhibitors contain certain different cancer drugs. They are different in mechanism of action from the other classes of cancer drugs [12]. They mainly interfere with cell proliferation of cell rather than alter DNA structure and function. Mitosis includes DNA replication which divides the cells in to two new cells. Spindle fibers separate newly replicates chromosomes and convert them in to two forming cells. The fibres which are produce microtubules which fix with the replicated chromosomes. Now chromosomes pull one of this copy to each side of the cell which includes spindle fibers, without that cell cannot divide. Antimitotics inhibit this earlier uncertain spindle function during cell cycle. Spindle fibers form of long chains of smaller subunit of tubuline protein. In the process of polymerisation tubuline subunits can add to microtubule. Some types of antimitotics stop the process of forming of tubuline monomers which inhibits the microtubule. In this process they arrest movement of chromosomes as well as spindle tubule [13]. Examples of mitotic inhibitors include Taxanes, paclitaxel (Taxol) and docetaxel (Taxotere), Epothilones like ixabepilone (Ixempra), and Vinca alkaloids: vinblastine (Velban), vincristine (Oncovin), and vinorelbine (Navelbine), estramustine (Emcyt) and Colchicines. Vinca alkaloids and colchicines are those who have more over same mechanism of action. Vinblastine inhibiting the formation spindle fibers which are responsible for position of chromosome and the separation of the chromosomes during anaphase. It also inhibits the formation of microtubules which are responsible for the formation of cell division. Vinca alkaloids have many side effects like others [14]. Vincristine also binds to the tubuline monomers and arrests the formation of spindle microtubules. As result of this, it blocks the movements of chromosome during cell division. Speficity is the major problem with vincristine because it also affects the healthy cells with cancer cells during cell division. Vindesine is another Vinca alkaloid who binds to the microtubules. It has target specificity problem which makes them less potent [15]. Texel is natural antimitotic drug and different in mechanism of action from Vinca alkaloids. Paclitaxal and docetaxel are the two important analogues . Paclitaxel inhibits microtubuline assembly rather than monomers. It binds to microtubules and prevent this breakdown because these two processes, polymerisation and breakdown, both are requiring for movement of replicated chromosomes. The prevention of chromosomes breakdown inhibits them to move to opposite direction of dividing cells. Reduction in bone marrow function which may result in anaemia, blood in stools or black stools, fast or irregular heart beat, are common side effects associated with paclitaxel [16]. Docetaxel has same mechanism of action as paclitaxel but if the drug is give with combination it will cause major side effects than paclitaxel [17]. Epothilones is microtubule function inhibitor. It binds to beta-tubuline subunit on microtubules and preventing polymerization during cell division and eventually causes cell death. Mainly peripheral neuropathy, mylosuppersion with white blood cells and hypersensitivity reactions are the side effects which cause by Epothilo nes [18]. Colchicines are antimitotics which have same mechanism of action as Vinca alkaloids. It also binds to tubuline and inhibits polymerization of microtubules. Tubuline availability is necessary for mitosis process and colchicines are inhibiting these tubules as spindle poison. Cancer cell have nature to proliferate most and this make them more susceptible to Colchicines drugs [19]. These are natural anitimitotics and their analogues. Their mechanism of action is mainly on tubuline and sometime called antitubuline agents. But they have their own challenges like insolubility, bioavability, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynemics, and toxicities problems. Tubuline plays a key role in their effects to bind mitosis but to overcome these challenges, proteins which are involve in the mitosis, are founded. They are presently under process to develop the capacity of clinical efficacy that those drugs have established [20]. Present scenario in antimitotics drug development (Specific druggable protein targets) The targeted proteins with specific function of new generation of anti mitotics are identified with molecularly targeted drug discovery. These new agents play important role in the unique way to provide the significant effects, which take beyond the certain limitations of drugs as well as extend the scope of their clinical efficacy of current antitubuline drugs. Although, they are facing some considerable challenges, but molecular mechanism of action of mitotic-checkpoint plays important role in mitosis [21]. Antitubuline drugs have complex chemical structure and are complicated to isolate and synthesised from their natural sources. Neurotoxicity and insolubities are the major problems with Vinca alkaloids and Taxanes. They also interfere in function of microtubules in axons, which provoke the neuronal vesicle motility. The non-structural components of mitosis as potential drug targets are one of the solution for therapy. They have unique effects in morphological stages during the mi tosis which is bring mitotic Kinesins, Aurora kinases and polo-like kinases (PLKs), as druggable protein target classes [22]. Targeting these proteins is well known as mitotics kinesin, kinesin spindle protein (KSP) are requires for the proliferation from prophase to prometaphase and Centromeric protein E (CENPE) is required during prometaphase to metaphase and also have effects in mitotic checkpoint [23, 24]. These protein targets are only finds in dividing cells so non-dividing cells are not effected. This showed that, this kind of target inhibition have potential and improved therapeutic index compare to tubuline target anti mitotic drugs. Although, proteins inhibitors might not enough effects on both the mitotic spindle and cytoskeleton but they have some significant role out side the mitosis. Moreover, to support these new agents, the role played by them in the mitosis, cause target inhibition to be connected with tumour growth inhibition. By the using pharmacodynemic marker, significant effective dose during drug development founded. These doses were affected instead of maximally tolerated dose, might also caused improved therapeutics index. The mechanism of action of these agents by which they inhibits tumour cells undergo cell death was not properly defined but they have many positive effects on these proteins. Activation of caspace 3 (significant effectors) has been identified in studies of protein target drugs, along with that mitotic catastrophe has also been founded [25, 26, 27]. Actually, catastrophe is cell death occurs from metaphase of mitosis against the drugs that produce DNA damage because of in this stage the caspace 2 is involved rather than caspase 3 which produces many morphological and therapeutic aspects of cell death. On the other hand, mitotic check point as effectors of cell death against protein inhibitors was contentious. It was suggested that KSP inhibitors needed mitotic checkpoint. In contrast to that, role of checkpoint studies involved that; this signalling might cause cell death with mitotic damage [28, 29, 30]. This mechanism might supported by Aurora B inhibitors [31]. Eventually, the mechanism of action of these new protein inhibitors became more understandable that, they are more involved in killing cell by unique mechanism but also, different genetic alterations, which may produce during cancer, play the important role during inhibition by these agents. Although, this studies is unfinished so its hard to get these new agent in action because they needed further more researches. KSP Inhibitors: Ispinesib was first KSP inhibitor and studied in clinic to check the therapeutic effects. Small molecules of KSP ATPase were targeting by this drug but it was not involved in effecting ATP and ADP. In terms of specificity, it was 40,000 times more selective as compare to other kinesins. Firstly it was studied intravenously and results founded that during different number of days, the cumulative dose delivery was same and dose limiting toxicity on both occasion was neutropenia as well as haematopoietic lineages, along with that nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea also observed. Raise in the dose also increases the amounts of phosphor-histones-H3 in tumour which involved inhibition of proliferation of tumour cells with dose. As consequence, the pharmacodynamic activities also increased. In earlier, the renal cell, hepatocellular and colorectal cancers are not responding to anti tubuline agents, but this KSP inhibitor extend the time duration of stability for more than 6 months. This agent a lso needed following treatments of natural anti tubuline agents [32]. The next KSP ATPase inhibitor is same to Ispinesib, and during clinical evaluation it came from the chemical synthesis [33]. It has more efficacious than first one. During the studies it is connected with dose limiting toxicities that is neutropenia and hyperbilirubinaemia [34, 35]. For cholangiocarcinoma, it gives some positive effect and two more cancers extend as stable diseases for more than six months. Third potent KSP inhibitor is MK-0731. It is more selective about more than 20,000 fold and associated with increased activity of hepatic transaminases and neutropenia [36]. Finally, clinical experience of KSP inhibitors showed that these agents associated with common dose limiting toxicities like neutropenia, increased activity of hepatic transaminases which are also observed with tubulin inhibitors. Although, some of toxicities like alopecia, mucositis and neuropathy, are not often seen. Nausea and vomiting have seen uncommonly with these protein targeting inhibitors. AURORA and PLK inhibitors One of the potent drug called as VX-680 also know as MK0457 as ATP competitive inhibits Aurora A, B and C to inhibit the cell differentiation in cell culture [37]. Its mechanism of action is to inhibit the FMS-related tyrosine kinase 3 and imatinib-resistant mutants forms of Abelson tyrosine (ABL) kinase. Imatinib and dasatinib are the resistant to those agents. During the studies, cancer cell from different patients, were tested against intravenous infusions. As results, neutropenia was mostly observed dose limiting toxicity and when the dose increased the some pharmacodynemic effects in skin was also observed. To evaluate that, phospho-histone-H3, Ki67 (antigen) and cycline B1 expressions are being checked before and after these studies. In the skin biopsies, there was no strong evidence observed, which showed the mitotic arrest or decrease in cell proliferation in the skin, during clinical studies. There was strong proof about the effects on cell proliferation which are haematopoi etic, but it was not case with skin biopsies. Mitotic inhibition, aneuploidy, was expected from the pan-Aurora but only delay in the mitotic progression observed during studies. Moreover, these agents inhibit the Aurora B and decrease the PHH3 levels when other anti-mitotic agent increases this biomarker. To overcome this limitation, the assays procedures developed which are capable to find out the decrease in the level of PHH3. Skin was not responding to these drugs. Extended stable disease for more than 6 months observed [21]. Another ATP-competitive Aurora B inhibitor is AZD1152 with significant IC50 cellular proliferation. This inhibitor evaluated in two schedules. In the both schedules, neutropenia observed as dose limiting toxicity for intravenous infusion. Moreover, next assessments reached in phase I and II studies for cancer like leukaemia [38]. BI 2536 is first ATP-competitive inhibitor of PLK1. There were three different partitions to evaluate this small molecule inhibitor. Every partition was evaluated by intravenous infusion and as result of that, same toxicity and dose delivery were obtained. Thrombocytopenia and neitropaenia were major dose limiting toxicities in every partition [39]. The second ATP non-competitive inhibitor of PLK1 is ON 01910. It may support PLK, to bind the substrates. It is currently under trail for two different doses because it has low potency to FLT1 and platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR). Increased activity of hepatic enzymes, anaemia, leucopoenia and gastrointestinal symptoms, are the adverse effects with this inhibitor [40]. All over, neutropaenia without significant neuropathy was major dose limiting toxicity with these inhibitors. Challenges and Developments in New Antimtotic Drugs Although, these novel antimitotic drugs have very significant role in inhibition of mitosis, they are facing many problems during their developments. Their appropriate ways, potential to reduce toxicities, activities, safety profile, and efficacy are some promising questions are yet to be solved. These agents have reduced risk of neurotoxicity, which is proved in clinic, but they also have dose limiting toxicities like neutropenia with relative sparing of the other haematopoietic lineages. So it will be difficult to tell yet that they have potential [41]. Another challenge was that, there was no clear perceptive between inhibition of respective mitotic target and cell death. Because they have mechanism of action is to arrest mitosis but whether this mitosis arrest initiate by activating by mitotic checkpoint or it is followed by mitotic slippage for further cell death. To identify the patients who are best responding to these agents is also a challenge in developments in theses agents. In addition to that, during clinical development, it is difficult to develop surrogate tissue to check the pharmacodynemic responses of these drugs because targets of these agent, was absent in most of them [42]. Along with pharmacodynemic effects, duration of such effect both is also crucial determinants for apoptosis. Therapeutic window can be calculated by evaluation of tumour markers at maximum tolerated dose (MTD) or below the MTD if possible but this might be achieved by incorporation of serial tumour biopsies was uniquely challenging. In addition to, which schedules would be sufficiently discover pharmacodynemic and pharmacokinetic data was difficult [43]. Considerable steps have already come in to view, to overcome these limitations and evade toxic side effects, produced by these agents. Such steps make two different types of practices; they are prodrugs and drug targeting methods. During these practices both methods led to increase some of biochemical properties along with pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynemic effects. Prodrug Prodrugs are chemically modified versions of pharmacologically active agents that must undergo transformation in vivo to release the active drug. The prodrug is administered in an inactive or significantly less active form. The use of prodrugs is generally established as a strategy to improve the physicochemical, biopharma-ceutical or pharmacokinetic properties of pharmacologically potent agents, and thereby increase the develop ability and usefulness of a potential drug [6]. Antimitotic Prodrugs which are in Use or Developing The following are the antimitotic prodrugs which try to develop to overcome these limitation associated with specific antimitotic drugs like Vinca alkaloids, Texans, Cochicines and phodopyllotoxins. A) Hydrolytically Activated Paclitaxel Prodrug Paclitaxel is well using in diseases like ovarian cancer, breast cancer and lung cancer but it has limitation like low water solubility, less effective, drug resistance and some effects. At high dose it produces hypersensitive reactions, hematologic toxicity, and neurotoxicity. It also limited by granulocyte colony-stimulating factors dependent neutropenia. It has dose dependent neurotoxicity expressed by loss of sensation [44]. Adapt from [44] By masking position7 hydroxyl group of paclitaxel with hydrophilic side chain (*) and resulted 7-(2, 3-dihydroxypropyl carbonoxy) paclitaxel is biologically inert and is activated at low pH conditions by hydrolytic cleavage of the carbamate linkage, obtaining active paclitaxel, dihydroxy propanol, and CO2 [44]. Following are the results obtained by analysing paclitaxel prodrug. Figure, (A) Figure, (B) Table 1, Figure A and Figure B, Adapt from [44]. Table 1 is hydrolytic activation of paclitaxel prodrug in vivo, indicating decrease in prodrug and increase in active drug. Figure (A), for conversion to active paclitaxel in vivo, indicating peak plasma concentrations were observed at 3 hours for paclitaxel prodrug (P1) and at 6 hours for active paclitaxel (P2), for 1 patient. Figure (B), for activation of paclitaxel in vivo, demonstrates the slow-release mechanism in vivo, for 5 pateints [44]. B) First enzymatically activated Taxotere Prodrugs Designed for ADEPT (Antibody Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy) and PMT (Prodrug Mono Therapy) Paclitaxel and its semi synthetic analogue docetaxel is essential drugs in the treatment of cancer as antimitotic drugs. There is slight difference between them is substitution at 3- nitrogen on the side chain and the 10-posititon of the taxoid core. They have high potency to solid tumour but they have number of undesirable side effects and poorer water solubility and also with detergent they initiate hypersensitivity reaction on body. These drugs delivery have evaluated on enzymatic hydrolysis in ADEPT (Antibody Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy) and PMT (Prodrug Mono Therapy).The two docetaxel prodrugs in figure A have synthesised with glucuronic moiety is linked to a double spacer. Para hydroxyl bezyle alcohol connected to diamer tether through a carbamate linkage in this spacer. This complex was shown to be more potent and labrets drugs in the presence of ÃŽÂ ²-Dglucuronidase enzyme in ADPET and PMT therapy [45]. Figure A, structure of scheme 2 and scheme 3 (Prodrug 4), scheme 2 and scheme 4 (Prodrug 5) and Prodrug 3 Adapt from [45] Following are the results by the comparison of these two drugs. Both of prodrugs have 24 hr-run of stability and there was no release from the prodrug during this time. Table 1 showed that these two prodrugs have compatible IC 50 values for the ADEPT and PMT strategy. Figure A and figure B showed that, during HPLC detection, prodrug level decreased until finished and spacer and parent drug, docetaxel, reached at area of stability [45]. Table 1, measured for L1210 cell lines were (HPLC): Prodrug, Scheme 2 and scheme 3 : 4.86 uM Docetaxel : 14. 4 uM Spacer: 75.3uM Prodrug, Scheme 2 and scheme 4: 2.69 uM Spacer:45.8uM Figure A, Comparison of the disappearance of the three prodrugs. Figure B, Enzymatic cleavage of prodrug 5 Figure 2, Scheme 2 and Scheme 4. Table 1, Figure A and Figure B adapt from [45]. C) Zyn-Linked colchicines: Controlled-release lipophilic prodrugs With enhanced antitumor efficacy Zyn-linked drug have rapid binding property to cell membrane. These Zyn-linkers prolong their binding and preservation in tissues, make sense to produce Zyn-linkers conjugates those who have better local delivery of therapeutics. Colchicine has chosen for these studies because this drug and its analogues are still under examination. Five Zyn linked colchicine analogues with either cleavable hydrazone or imine bonds, have synthesised and evaluated their stability ,cytotoxicity and antitumour activity [46]. Fig.1. Structures of colchicine and modifications to form the analogues for Zyn-Linking are shown. Fig. 2.Structures of the Zyn-Linkers modified for attachment of the colchicine analogues. Fig.3. Structures of Zyn-Linker conjugates are shown with the bonds subject to hydrolysis indicated by an arrow: (a) hydrazones conjugates linked at the B-ring of the colchincine moiety, (b) imine conjugate, and (c) hydrazones conjugate linked at the A ring of the colchicine moiety. Figure 1, 2 and 3, adapt from [46] Following are the results for their relationship among different properties. Table 1 Table2 Table3 Table 1, 2 and 3, adapt from [46] Table 1 showed that, ZYN 162 and PKH 158 at pH 7.2, are two potential products and out of them one is expected and one is unidentified products. Table 2 showed that, 80% to less than 1%, was range of therapeutic and unhydrolysed conjugated, was inactive. Zyn-linkers had no antimitotic activity; on the other hand, drug or Zyn-linked drugs were active. Table 3 showed that, with 4-formayl group thiocolchicine have reduced their toxicities and enhanced therapeutic activity [46]. D) Preparation, characterization, cytotoxicity and pharmacokinetics Of liposome containing water-soluble prodrugs of paclitaxel Paclitaxel have antimitotic effect against the various cancers like breast cancer, ovarian cancer, head and neck cancers. Due to its aqueous insolubility, it was dissolving in the mixture of 50 % Ethanol and 50 % Cremopher EL (caster oil). Neurotoxicity and hypersensitivity are side effects of this Cremopher. So to reduce this side effect and to enhance the drug entrapment in liposome with better aqueous solubility, three prodrugs and prodrugs liposome formulations have synthesised and evaluated their pharmacokinetic parameter, stability and antitumor activity with parent drug [47]. Following are the results obtained during comparison in stability, cytitoxicity and pharmacokinetic property of drug, prodrugs and their prodrug liposome. 1) Stability Table1 Table 2 Figure 1, 2 and 3, Table 1 and 2, adapt from [47] Figure 2 and 3 showed that, by the changing the property like diameter, membrane fluidity and charge, liposome containing 2-mPEG-paclitaxel composed of PC-PG-CHOL 9:1:5 showed better stability more than 2 months and good entrapment ability. Table 1 and 2 showed that, in vitro cytotoxic effects of liposome containing compound 3 and 4 on two cell line, HT-29 and MeWo, maintained, but rapidly hydrolysed and giving free parent drugs, while liposome loaded paclitaxel-2succinyl had more resistance to hydrolysed. 2-PEG-paclitaxel also had ability to make difference in pharmacokinetic parameters as compare to free drug [47]. D) Synthesis and evaluation of water-soluble docetaxel prodrugs- Docetaxel esters of malic acid. Paclitaxel and docetaxel are semi synthetic analogues widely used for various cancers. But water solubility is major limitation for these drug and to come over from this limitation, at C20, C7 -or/and C10 position several research group introduced solubilising moieties [48]. Figure A Figure A, table 1 and table 2, adapt from [48] Figure A, table 1 and table 2 showed that, 20-DLmalyl docetaxel sodium salt 3a come out with excellent water solubility, more active than docetaxel in vitro and antitumor activity in vivo [48]. E) Synthesis of Water Soluble Prodrugs of the Cytotoxic Agent Combertastatin A4 Combertastatin A4 has structure similar to colchicine. It is an inhibitor of tubulin polymerisation to stop proliferation of cells. Although, this drug has potential for antimitotic activity, it is soluble in the few pharmaceutically accepted solvents. Synthesis of water soluble glycosides of combertastatin A4, have conducted by make modification by hydroxyl function. To increase the yield, they have reversed the components of the Witting reaction [49]. Adapt from [49] The ammonium salt have prepared and converted into potassium salt to make crystal form. This ammonium salt was more stable in buffer solution and degraded slowly in plasma at 37 C when incubated with acid phosphates and alkaline phosphatise [49]. F) Prodrugs of 40-Demethyl-4-deoxypodophyllotoxin: Synthesis and Evaluation of the Antitumor Activity 4-Deoxypodophyllotoxin (DPT) and 4-demethyl-4-deoxypodophyllotoxin (DDPT) have comparable in vitro potency against different cell lines but free hydroxyl group at 4 position in structure of DDPT loss its in vivo antitumor activity against BDF1/3LL model. Replacing this free group by bioreversible functionality might improve in vivo activity. For that series of prodrugs have synthesised and evaluated their cytotoxic and antitumor activities [50]. Following are the results obtained during studies. Adapt from [50]. Table showed that 10 and 11 derivatives were properly transferred in to parent drug 2 but weak in vivo activity and 6 derivative showed IR of 95% of antitumor activity. The carbamates and carbonates of two compounds, 6 and 9, showed potent antitumor activity, might be by intermolecular cyclic rearrangements of hydroxyl side chain. Moreover, amino acid prodrugs, 12 to 17, demonstrated better water solubility and potent antitumor activity [50]. Discussion Presently the antimitotics prodrugs are novel compounds and hold many promises and may have abilities to improve the drawbacks of anti tubuline or specific protein inhibitors, which are regulating the cell cycle, demonstrated by clinical data. With observations to clinical activity, it is too premature to tell for most of the agents in development. There are number of prodrugs have been developing and some have evaluated in laboratory. Antimitotic prodrugs may improve limitations of these drugs during in vitro and in vivo studies but there are still need more information about clinical phase trails by using number of patients, to these prodrugs. In particular, hydrolytically activated paclitaxel prodrug has decreases toxicity in vivo and produced better responses in patients with end stage in cancer. Serum half- life also dramatically increased with maximum plasma concentration, in vivo, but more studies require about responses in phase III trails, as it was evaluated in 10 patients. Moreover, information needed about, high concentration expose to tumour tissue for critical time, as significant G2M phase arrest is primary mechanism of action. First prodrugs of docetaxel have synthesised for the ADPET (Antibody Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy) and PMT (Prodrug Mono Therapy) strategies. Spacer have nitro group on the aromatic ring. In the hydrogenesis step it could be preserved which is not seen in the previous paclitaxel prodrugs. This nitro and amino groups containing prodrugs have expressed good kinetics and enzymatic hydrolysis in particular cell line, but more information needed about self immolative spacer for its effects on the paclitaxel on various cell lines. This issue need more clarification prior to clinical trails in malignancy models. Four conjugates of Zyn-linked colchicine have hydro linkage, imine bond in spacer arms, colchicines moiet